BEYOND CONVENTIONAL TREATMENTS: EXPLORING PHYTOCHEMICAL REMEDIES FROM LAURACEAE AND OXALIDACEAE IN UROLITHIASIS

BEYOND CONVENTIONAL TREATMENTS: EXPLORING PHYTOCHEMICAL REMEDIES FROM LAURACEAE AND OXALIDACEAE IN UROLITHIASIS

Pitam Ghosh, Maitrayee Ghosh and Debajyoti Roy *

Department of Pharmacy, C. V. Raman Global University, Mahura, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.

ABSTRACT: Kidney stones are also called as renal calculus or nephrolith. These are small, hard, deposits of mineral and acid salts on the inner lining of the kidney. Nephrolithiasis is characterized by the formation of renal calculus within the kidneys. When these stones leave the renal pelvis and travel into the remaining portions of the urinary system, which includes the ureters, bladder, and urethra, this condition is known as urolithiasis. Urolithiasis has become a serious global health problem and it is a common painful urologic condition that affects 12% of people worldwide. Nephrolithiasis is more common in men as compared to women and the recurrence rate in men (70-81%) is also higher than the females (47-60%). People of all ages are affected by urolithiasis but the age between 50 and 60 years was the peak age for the formation of calcium oxalate stones. Lauraceae is one of the most common and widely spread families. The plants of Lauraceae family are grown in tropical and warm climates. Some species of Lauraceae family are used globally as folk medicines to cure a variety of illnesses. Inspite of this, it has observed that only a small number of Lauraceae species have been examined for their antiurolithiatic activity. Some plants of Oxalidaceae family are traditionally used by tribal people in the treatment of urolithiasis due to presence of bioactive phytoconstituent.

Keywords: Crystal, Lauraceae, Natural, Oxalidaceae, Plant, Urinary system, Urolithiasis

INTRODUCTION: Kidney stones are also called as renal calculus or nephrolith. These are small, hard, deposits of mineral and acid salts on the inner lining of the kidney. Nephrolithiasis is characterized by the formation of renal calculus within the kidneys ¹. When these stones leave the renal pelvis and travel into the remaining portions of the urinary system, which includes the ureters, bladder, and urethra, this condition is known as urolithiasis.

Renal colic is a painful condition caused by renal calculus or kidney stones, which obstruct the flow of urine and cause difficulty during urination. After prostate diseases and urinary tract infections (UTIs), kidney stones are the third most prevalent urinary tract issue with a high relapse rate and it has become a significant cause of morbidity in people ². 50% of people may experience a recurrence within 5–10 years ³.

Urolithiasis has become a serious global health problem and it is a common painful urologic condition that affects 12% of people worldwide. Nephrolithiasis is more common in men as compared to women ⁴ and the recurrence rate in men (70-81%) is also higher than the females (47-60%) ⁵. People of all ages are affected by urolithiasis but the age between 50 and 60 years was the peak age for the formation of calcium oxalate stones ⁶. A number of risk factors may contribute to kidney stone formation. High animal protein intake, lesser intake of water, unhealthy lifestyle, high oxalate rich food intake (found in foods like beans, beer, coffee, berries, spinach, chocolate, some nuts, soda), low calcium intake, obesity, family history of stones and high consumption of salt are all common risk factors for the development of renal calculus. Various metabolic alterations such as hyperuricosuria (presence of excessive amount of uric acid in urine), hyperoxaluria (increased excretion of oxalate in urine), hypocitraturia (low amount of urinary citrate excretion), hypercalciuria (presence of excess calcium in the urine), and a history of gout (defective uric acid biotransformation) may lead to the formation of various types of kidney stones ⁷.

These metabolic abnormalities cause an imbalance between stone promoters (calcium, uric acids) and inhibitors (magnesium, citrate, pyrophosphate) in the kidneys. Magnesium helps to dissolve the renal calculi and enhances the excretion of stones through urine and citrate inhibits stone formation by reducing the supersaturation of calcium salt ⁸. Some drugs (indinavir, atazanavir, guaifenesin, triamterene, sulfonamides etc.) induce stones but this type of stones is rare ⁹. Consumption of fish oil and vitamin C increases the incidence of calcium stones ¹⁰.

Several disease conditions such as hypertension, diabetes and renal dysfunction induces the formation of various types of stones such as calcium stones, uric acid stones etc ⁸. Some urease producing bacteria like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermitis and some species of Klebsiella, Enterobacter break down urea, raising the pH of the urine and increase the concentration of magnesium ammonium phosphate ions in the urine. This creates a favourable environment which promotes the formation of stones ¹¹. The kidney stones are classified on the basis of its mineral composition. Kidney stones are classified into four main categories: calcium (80%), struvite (5–15%), uric acid (5-10%) and cystine (1–3%) ⁷. About 80% of kidney stones are formed by calcium oxalate (CaOx) and calcium phosphate ¹². Lauraceae is one of the most common and widely spread families. The plants of Lauraceae family are grown in tropical and warm climates. Some species of Lauraceae family are used globally as folk medicines to cure a variety of illnesses. Inspite of this, it has observed that only a small number of Lauraceae species have been examined for their antiurolithiatic activity. Some plants of Oxalidaceae family are traditionally used by tribal people in the treatment of urolithiasis due to presence of bioactive phytoconstituent.

Mechanism of Kidney Stone Formation: A sequence of events is involved in urinary stone formation including urinary supersaturation, crystal nucleation, crystal growth, crystal aggregation and lastly, formation of kidney stone. Urine is a saturated solution of minerals and colloids. There is a balance between the inhibitors and the promoters of stones in urine.

Urinary Supersaturation: The supersaturation process starts when the level of stone promoters increases and the level of stone inhibitors decreases due to various metabolic disorders, unhealthy lifestyle, high consumption of animal protein, oxalate rich food, salts etc. Besides, low urine volume due to lesser intake of water, and increased fluid loss from the body may cause high concentration of metabolic products in urine. As a result, urine becomes supersaturated.

Crystal Nucleation: Nucleation is defined as a process of formation of a crystal from a solution. The solutes cannot remain dissolved beyond the supersaturation point and the solutes get precipitated, resulting the formation of tinny clusters of salts. In this step, the liquid of supersaturated solution is converted into solid crystal. Calcium oxalate crystallization is facilitated by renal tubule endothelial cell rupture.

Crystal Growth: Crystal growth is defined as the addition of new molecules of salts or stone forming substances to the existing nuclei. It is the subsequent essential step for the development of kidney stone.

Crystal Aggregation: Aggregation means the clustering of the existing crystals by interacting with other crystals present in supersaturated urine.

The developed crystals (stones) adhere to the renal tubule's epithelial cells which results in urolithiasis. Various nucleators are produced during the interaction between crystal and renal tubule's epithelial cells. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated due to damage of endothelial cells of renal tubule by CaOx crystals. The increase level of ROS activates various signaling pathway (p38/MAPK) which causes apoptosis ¹³. The elevated ROS level is responsible for releasing the inflammatory mediators such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1β, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 ¹⁴. All of these factors help to promote the gradual crystal formation, aggregation, and retention processes, which ultimately result in the production of stones.

Prevalence of Urolithiasis: The prevalence of kidney stones in both males and females has increased dramatically in developed nations over the last several decades. This is most likely due to dietary and lifestyle changes made by residents of these areas ¹⁵. The prevalence of kidney stones varies worldwide. Central Europe, Scandinavia, the Mediterranean region, China, British Isles, northern Australia, Pakistan, parts of the Malay Peninsula and northern India have higher incidences of urinary stone than other regions. The "stone belt" region of India includes parts of Gujarat, Punjab, Maharashtra, Delhi, Rajasthan and Haryana ².

Geography plays an important role in stone formation. Men are more susceptible to stone development due to the complex structure of male urinary system. Besides testosterone promotes the incidence of stone formation in males. But estrogen inhibits stone formation in females by maintaining urine alkaline and increasing citrate levels which serves as an inhibitor of stones ¹⁶. According to several reports, vegetarians have a decreased chance of developing stones than non-vegetarians ¹⁷. According to the report of WHO, the incidence of urolithiasis has been rising in numerous patients over the past few years due to unhealthy lifestyle, inadequate water consumption, high consumption of animal protein, oxalate rich food ^{18, 19}.

Current Management and Treatment for Urolithiasis: Numerous therapies are available for the treatment of urolithiasis. The best therapy is chosen on the basis of size and location of the stone as well as severity of symptoms. Commonly used treatments include:

Pain Control: Painkillers are effective in managing urolithiasis-related recurring discomfort. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) such as paracetamol, diclophenac, ibuprofen, acetaminophen are commonly used as painkiller or anti-analgesic drugs to manage mild to moderate pain ²⁰.

Opioids and other stronger painkiller are used to reduce severe pain. Alpha 1 adrenergic blockers such as tamsulosin relax the smooth muscle and relieve spasm. At least 2.5 to 3.5 liters of water should be consumed daily to prevent and treat recurrent urolithiasis ²¹.

Thiazide Diuretics: Thiazide diuretics such as hydrochlorothiazide, chlorthalidone, indapamide are helpful for those who have renal stones or an elevated level of calcium in their urine. These medications help to eliminate the excess calcium from the body and inhibit the development of calcium stone ^{10, 20}.

Potassium Citrate: Potassium citrate inhibits the cystine and uric acid stone formation by making the urine less acidic. It creates an unfavorable environment for the formation of kidney stone by making the urine more alkaline ²⁰.

Probiotics: Oxalobacter formigenes and other probiotics prevent stone formation within kidney by reducing oxalate excretion from body ⁵.

Allopurinol: Allopurinol, a xanthine oxidase inhibitor, used to lower the uric acid level in the blood and urine in those individuals who have hyperuricosuria. Excessive consumption of dietary purine is the cause of hyperuricosuria. Allopurinol inhibits xanthine oxidase enzyme which is responsible for the formation of uric acid from hypoxanthine ^{10, 20}.

Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy (ESWL): ESWL is a non-invasive medical procedure. The targeted stone is exposed to high intensity shock waves which facilitates the breakdown of stone into small fragments. These small fragments can be easily excreted from the body through urine ²².

Ureteroscopy: A thin, flexible tube fitted with a camera is inserted between the bladder and urethra during this procedure. The stone is divided into tiny pieces using a laser so that these tiny pieces can be removed naturally ²².

Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL): A small incision is created in the back during this surgery and the stone is removed by using specialized instruments. It involves fragmentation and removal of large calculi from the kidney. This technique is especially effective for larger stones ²².

Importance of Medicinal Plants in the Treatment of Urolithiasis: Since, ancient times, plants have been widely utilized as medicines in Ayurvedic, Unani, Chinese and other medicinal systems due to presence of a diverse range of phytoconstituents. Herbal medications are becoming more popular because of their effectiveness, low toxicity, and lack of adverse effects ²³.

According to a WHO assessment, 80% of nations worldwide are dependent on medicinal herbs ¹¹. Tribal peoples of different parts of the world have used traditional indigenous folk medicines to treat a variety of illnesses. They have great trust in folk medications due to promising and effective results of the herbal treatment ^{23, 24}.

Almost, 20000 medicinal plants are used worldwide whereas India contributes 15-20% of the total.  Conventional pharmacological treatments for urolithiasis are not effective to cure and prevent kidney stone. These medications are expensive, frequently cause recurrences and side effects, increase the risk of infertility, and have no assurance. For the treatment of urolithiasis, there is currently no genuinely effective medication. So, studies on therapeutic plants have expanded worldwide in the past few years. A review article has mentioned that 457 medicinal plants of 108 families used as antiurolithiatic drugs in different countries and cultures ²⁶. The aim of this review is to cover all indigenous plants, belonging to the family Lauraceae and Oxalidaceae, are effective in the treatment of kidney stone.

Promising Plants against Urolithiasis:

Cinnamomum tamala L.: Cinnamomum tamalais an evergreen, monoecious plant, found in tropical and subtropical Himalayan region, belonging to the family Lauraceae. Cinnamomum tamala, locally known as “Tejpatta”. Numerous studies have demonstrated the pharmacological activity of Cinnamomum tamala, including its antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, gastro-protective, antihelminthic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antifungal, antibacterial and antioxidant properties. The leaf extract is traditionally used in the treatment of kidney stones. The leaf extract contains tannins, flavonoid glycosides, furanogermenone, β-caryophyllene, germacrene D, furanodienone, tetrahydroxyflavone, cinnamaldehyde, linalool, geraniol, eugenol etc ^{37, 38}.

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch-Ham) Sweet: Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch-Ham) Sweet, an evergreen aromatic tree, is one of the medicinally important species in the genus Cinnamomum with a variety of ethnomedicinal and pharmacological uses. This species is found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam etc ³⁹. Tribal or native peoples of different part of world used this plant as folk medicine. It is traditionally used for its antihelmentic ⁴⁰ and cardiotonic potential ⁴¹. Due to presence of a diverse range of bioactive constituents such as terpenoids, proanthocyanidin, flavol-3-ols, flavon-3-ol glucoside, linalool, linoleic acid, geranial, β-sitosterol, cinnamic acid, this plant is effective in the treatment of stomach disorder ⁴², liver problems ⁴³ and kidney stones ²⁸. It also possesses wound healing property ⁴⁴.

Actinodaphne Angustifolia (Blume) Nees: Actinodaphne angustifolia Nees. is traditionally used as folk medicine against diabetes and urinary disorder. It belongs to the family Lauraceae. The carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) fraction of leaves of A. angustifolia shows cytotoxic, antioxidant, thrombolytic and antidiarrheal potential due to presence of β-sitosterol, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside, vitexin, friedelin, and hydrocarbons ⁴⁵. This species contains some important secondary metabolites such as isoquinoline alkaloids (aporphine), lignans, phenolic amides, lactones. The plant exhibits potent antioxidant properties by scavenging free radicals and anti-inflammatory potential by lowering inflammatory mediators against urolithiasis. It has lots of pharmacological importance such as antioxidant, antidiarrheal, thrombolytic, antimicrobial, hypoglycemic activity. The decoction of the leaf is used in the treatment of urolithiasis.

TABLE 1: NAME OF ANTIUROLITHIATIC PLANTS BELONGS TO THE FAMILY LAURACEAE AND OXALIDACEAE

Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees/ Cinnamomum cassia Presl: It is a tropical evergreen aromatic species which is widely used as folk medicine in China, India and other countries. The results of numerous researches demonstrated its anti-inflammatory, antitumour, anti-diabetic, analgesic, antiviral, antibacterial potentials ^{46, 47}. It is a well-recognized folk medicine which contains terpenoids (linalool, camphene, β-pinene, camphor, terpineol), phenylpropanoids (cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, ethyl cinnamate, cis-2-methoxycinnamic acid, coniferaldehyde, cinnamic acid), glycosides (cinnacasolide, cinnacasside), lignans (cinncassin), lactones and other compounds. It is a widely used traditional Chinese medication which is used to treat nephropathy, diabetes, dysmenorrheal ^{48, 49}. These phyto-constituents are responsible for antitumor, antiinflammatory, analgesic, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, cardio protective and neuroprotective effects ⁵⁰.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume: Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume. is an evergreen plant which is widely used as spice and flavouring agent by people of different cultures. It belongs to the family Lauraceae. This plant is distributed in Srilanka, southern part of India, Madagaskar. The native peoples of India used this plant as a folk medicine from ancient time. Each part of Cinnamomum zeylanicum has medicinal values. It contains phytoconstituents like cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, linalool. It also contains some other bioactive compounds such as anthraquinone glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, phytosterols, phenols, saponins, diterpenes ⁵¹. The hydro-alcoholic extract of Cinnamomum zeylanicum exhibits antiurolithiatic activity on calcium oxalate crystal by inhibiting the crystal aggregation ⁵¹.

Cinnamomum verum J. Presl: Cinnamomum verum, a well-known spice for its culinary and medicinal uses, is distributed in Southern India, Srilanka and many Australian, African, Asian, Caribbean countries. This plant is well recognized folk medicine which has lots of pharmacological values such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, wound healing, antidiabetic, anti-anxiety, anti-HIV and antidepressant. Eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, caryophyllene, and cinnamic acid are the major compounds present in the leaf extract of Cinnamomum verum. The leaf decoction is traditionally used to dissolve and expel kidney stone ⁵².

Persea gratissima Gaertn. Fil: Persea gratissima is an indigenous medicinal plant, distributed in subtropical and tropic climate. It belongs to the family Lauraceae. The leaf of Persea gratissima is a natural substance that have been utilized as an antioxidant, diuretic, and anti-inflammatory due to presence of variety of active substances, including as triterpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins and tannins.  The leaf extract inhibits formation of kidney stone by inhibiting the crystallization process, the second step of urinary stone formation ⁵³.

Persea americana Mill: Persea americana Mill, commonly known as avocado, is an evergreen plant which is found in tropical and subtropical region of the world. It contains chemicals such as saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids and tannins. A preclinical study proved that the leaf extract of Persea americana is effective in the treatment of kidney stone ⁵⁴. It shows antiurolithiatic activity by dissolving the stones and the efficacy of avocado leaf infusion as a kidney stone dissolver can be enhanced by increasing its dose ⁵⁵. The flavonoid and phenolic compound present in leaf extract inhibits crystallization by preventing the aggregation process of crystal ⁵⁶.

Laurus nobilis L: Laurus nobilis L. is an evergreen aromatic and medicinal shrub which is native to Mediterranean regions. This plant comes under the family Lauraceae. The essential oil obtained from this plant has lots of pharmacological properties, including antibacterial, antioxidant and antifungal ^{57, 58}. It is reported that the seeds contain antiulcer and antidiabetic properties. It contains volatile oil (1,8-cineole, sabinene, linalool, methyl eugenol, α-pinene, limonene, α-terpineol), monoterpenes and their oxygenated derivates, diterpenes and esters. The infusion of bark is traditionally used as antiurolithiatic agent. Reactive oxygen species, produced due to interaction between crystal and renal endothelial cell, initiate apoptosis and kidney stone formation. Laurus nobilis decreases the production of kidney stones by inhibiting the inflammatory and free radicals mediated renal endothelial cell apoptosis.

 Averrhoa carambola: Averrhoa carambola is an evergreen tree grows in tropical and subtropical regions, belonging to the family Oxalidaceae. It is a very good source of natural antioxidants like L-ascorbic acid, epicatechin and gallic acid. It has been reported that the fruit of Averrhoa carambola contains saponin, glycosides, flavonoids (carambolaside, epicatechin, catechin, carambola-flavone), terpens (roseoside, connabiside), β- sitosterol, campesterol. It also contained the four major plant fatty acids- palimitic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acid. Edible portion of the fruit contains dietary fibers, pectin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, minerals (phosphorous, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, zinc). Pharmacological studies have revealed that crude extract of this plant exhibit multiple activities such as antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, anti-inflammatory, hepato-protective, cardioprotective, antitumor, antihypertensive activities. Numerous literatures have claimed that it has antiurothiatic activity due to presence of anthraquinone glucoside, flavonoids (quercetin-3-O-β-d- glucoside lupeol), β-sitosterol and rutin.59Averrhoa carambola prevents the formation of kidney stone by inhibiting the supersaturation of urine. It also reduces the deposition of crystal by increasing the excretion of stones due to its diuretic property ⁵⁹.

Oxalis corniculate L: Oxalis corniculate L, also known as creeping wood sorrel, is an herbaceous plant which has lots of medical importance. This medicinal plant contains some important secondary metabolites such as glycosides, β-sitosterol, ethyl gallate, apigenin, isovitexine, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, fibers, and tannins,fatty acids like palmitic acid, oleic, linoleic, linolenic and stearic acids etc., responsible for antidiabetic, wound healing, anti-amoebic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant.  It exhibits a protective effect in urolithiasis by decreasing the inflammation and preventing the renal epithelial cell damage by free radicals which increases the crystal formation ⁶⁰.

Biophytum sensitivum: Biophytum sensitivum L. has been used in the Ayurveda for its various medicinal values due to presence of bioactive constituents such as flavones (cupressuflavone, amentoflavone), flavonoids (luteolin 7-methyl ether, isoorientin, 3'-methoxyluteolin 7-O-glucoside), acids (4-caffeoylquinic acid and 5-caffeoylquinic acid) ^{25, 63}. This plant is traditionally used in the treatment of renal calculi. Some in-vivo studies proved that the whole plant extract of Biophytum sensitivum decreased and inhibited the development and formation of urinary stones ^{61, 62}. It reduces the level of stone-forming components, increases the elimination of stones due to diuretic effects. It also acts as free radical scavenger due to its antioxidant activity. Besides this antiurolithiatic property is attributed to its nephroprotective potential.

CONCLUSION: This review delves into the multifaceted realm of urolithiasis, shedding light on the fundamental aspects of kidney stones, encompassing their prevalence rates, etiological factors, and contemporary treatment modalities. Focusing on the Lauraceae and Oxalidaceae plant families, this exploration extends beyond the conventional medical approaches, delving into the rich tapestry of phytochemicals inherent in these plants. By meticulously examining their scientific nomenclature and traditional applications, we unearth a treasure trove of holistic remedies that have been historically employed in the management of urolithiasis.

The integration of traditional wisdom with contemporary scientific understanding provides a nuanced perspective on the potential efficacy of these plant-derived compounds. This synthesis of knowledge not only enriches our understanding of alternative therapeutic avenues but also underscores the importance of exploring nature's pharmacopeia in addressing urolithiasis. It has navigated the intricate interplay between traditional wisdom and modern science, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers, healthcare practitioners, and enthusiasts alike.

By presenting a balanced amalgamation of historical insights and scientific evidence, we pave the way for future investigations into the untapped potential of Lauraceae and Oxalidaceae plants in the realm of urolithiasis management. This endeavor not only expands the horizons of medicinal research but also emphasizes the significance of a holistic approach in addressing health challenges.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The authors are thankful to CV Raman Global University for providing the necessary facilities for the compilation of this manuscript. Funding the authors declare that this study has no funding.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST: Pitam Ghosh has no conflict of interest. Maitrayee Ghosh has no conflict of interest. Debajyoti Roy has no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES:

1. Aray P, Pandey S and Verma V: Kidney stone formation and use of medicinal plants as anti-urolithiatic agents. Universal Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 2017; 2(4): 43-48.
2. Liu Y, Chen Y, Liao B, Luo D, Wang K, Li H and Zeng G: Epidemiology of urolithiasis in Asia. Asian Journal of Urology 2018; 5(4), 205-14, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajur.2018.08.007.
3. Nirumand MC, Hajialyani M, Rahimi R, Farzaei MH, Zingue S, Nabavi SM and Bishayee A: Dietary plants for the prevention and management of kidney stones: preclinical and clinical evidence and molecular mechanisms. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2018; 19(3): 765. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19030765.
4. Edvardsson VO, Indridason OS, Haraldsson G, Kjartansson O and Palsson R: Temporal trends in the incidence of kidney stone disease. Kidney International 2013; 83(1): 146–152. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2012.320.
5. Mikawlrawng K, Kumar S and Vandana R: Current scenario of urolithiasis and the use of medicinal plants as antiurolithiatic agents in Manipur (North East India): a review. International Journal of Herbal Medicine 2014; 2(1): 1-2. www.florajournal.com
6. Baker PW, Coyle P, Bais R and Rofe AM: Influence of season, age and sex on renal stone formation in South Australia. The Medical Journal of Australia 1993; 159: 390-392. doi: https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1993.tb137913.x.
7. Sansores-Espana D, Pech-Aguilar AG, Cua-Pech KG, Medina-Vera I, Guevara-Cruz M, Gutierrez-Solis AL, Reyes-Garcia JG and Avila-Nava A: Plants used in Mexican traditional medicine for the management of urolithiasis: A review of preclinical evidence, bioactive compounds, and molecular mechanisms. Molecules 2022; 27(6): 2008. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27062008.
8. Kant R, Singh TG and Singh S: Mechanistic approach to herbal formulations used for urolithiasis treatment. Obesity Medicine 2020; 19: 100266. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obmed.2020.100266.
9. Raikwar D and Patel MK: Role of herbal medicines in the treatment of Kidney stone: a brief review. Advance Pharmaceutical Journal 2022; 7(5): 149-154.
10. Khan F, Haider MF, Singh MK, Sharma P, Kumar T and Neda EN: A comprehensive review on kidney stones, its diagnosis and treatment with allopathic and ayurvedic medicines. Urology & Nephrology Open Access Journal 2019; 7(4): 69-74.
11. Alok S, Jain S. K, Verma A, Kumar M and Sabharwal M: Pathophysiology of kidney, gallbladder and urinary stones treatment with herbal and allopathic medicine: A review. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease 2013; 3(6): 496-504. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(13)60107-3.
12. Khan SR, Pearle MS, Robertson WG, Gambaro G, Canales BK, Doizi S, Traxer O and Tiselius HG: Kidney stones. Nature reviews Disease Primers 2016; 2(1): 1-23. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2016.8.
13. Guo C, Yuan H and He Z: Melamine causes apoptosis of rat kidney epithelial cell line (NRK‐52e cells) via excessive intracellular ROS (reactive oxygen species) and the activation of p38 MAPK pathway. Cell Biology International 2012; 36(4): 383-9. doi. https://doi.org/10.1042/CBI20110504.
14. Evan AP, Coe FL, Lingeman JE, Shao Y, Sommer AJ, Bledsoe SB, Anderson JC and Worcester EM: Mechanism of formation of human calcium oxalate renal stones on Randall's plaque. The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology 2007; 290(10): 1315-1323. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.20580.
15. Abufaraj M, Al Karmi J and Yang L: Prevalence and trends of urolithiasis among adults: Current Opinion in Urology 2022; 32(4): 425-32. doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/MOU.0000000000000994.
16. Heller HJ, Sakhaee K, Moe OW and Pak CY: Etiological role of estrogen status in renal stone formation. The Journal of Urology 2002; 168(5): 1923-1927. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(05)64264-4.
17. Robertson WG, Peacock M and Marshall DH: Prevalence of urinary stone disease in vegetarians. European Urology 1982; 8(6): 334-339. doi: https://doi.org/10.1159/000473551.
18. Sampath A, Kossoff E. H, Furth SL, Pyzik PL and Vining EP: Kidney stones and the ketogenic diet: risk factors and prevention. Journal of child neurology 2007, 22(4), 375-8. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073807301926
19. Kohjimoto Y, Sasaki Y, Iguchi M, Matsumura N, Inagaki T and Hara I: Association of metabolic syndrome traits and severity of kidney stones: results from a nationwide survey on urolithiasis in Japan. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2013; 61(6): 923-929. doi: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2012.12.028.
20. Rasool M, Mousa T, Alhamadani H and Ismael A: Therapeutic potential of medicinal plants for the management of renal stones: A review. Baghdad Journal of Biochemistry and Applied Biological Sciences 2022; 3(02): 69-98. doi: https://doi.org/10.47419/bjbabs.v3i02.133.
21. Perrier ET, Arrmstrong LE, Bottin JH, Clark WF, Dolci A, Guelinckx I, Iroz A, Kavouras SA, Lang F, Lieberman H. R, Melander O, Morin C, Seksek I, Stookey J. D, Tack I and Vanhaeke T: Hydration for health hypothesis: a narrative review of supporting evidence. European Journal of Nutrition 2020; 1167-1180, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-020-02296-z.
22. Shukla AK, Shukla S, Garg A and Garg S: A review on anti-urolithiatic activity of herbal folk plants. Asian Journal of Biomaterial Research 2017; 3(2): 1-11.
23. Pifferi G, Santoro P and Pedrani M: Quality and functionality of excipients. Il Farmaco 1999; 54: 1–14. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-827X(98)00101-3.
24. Purohit SS and Prajapati ND: Medicinal plants: Local heritage with global importance. AGROBIOS News Let. 2003; 1(8): 7-8.
25. PK Lithashabin, Sajith Kumar PN, Rajagopal PL, Arthi I, Anjana AK and Yamuna CV: An updated review on various pharmacological activity of Biophytum sensitivum. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 2020; 9(5): 866-874. doi: 10.20959/wjpr20205-17402.
26. Ahmed S, Hasan MM and Mahmood ZA: Antiurolithiatic plants in different countries and cultures. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2016; 5(1): 102-115. www.florajournal.com.
27. Ahmed MM and Singh PK: Traditional Knowledge of Kidney Stones Treatment by Muslim Maiba (Herbalists) of Manipur, India. Notulae Scientia Biologicae 2011; 3(2): 12-15. doi: https://doi.org/10.15835/nsb325735.
28. Lokendrajit N, Swapana N, Singh CD and Singh CB: Herbal folk medicines used for urinary and calculi/stone cases complaints in Manipur. NeBIO 2011; 2(3): 1-5.
29. Faridi P, Roozbeh J and Mohagheghzadeh A: Ibn-Sina's life and contributions to medicinal therapies of kidney calculi. Iranian J of Kidney Diseases 2012; 6(5): 339.
30. Ahmed S, Hasan MM and Mahmood ZA: Urolithiasis management and treatment: Exploring historical vistas of Greco-arabic contribution. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2016; 5(5): 167-78. www.florajournal.com.
31. Kumar H, Khajuria AK and Bisht NS: Traditional phytoremedies used to treat urolithiasis in Pauri (Garhwal) Uttarakhand India. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2018; 7(3): 2941-2944. www.florajournal.com.
32. Ahmed S, Mallick IA and Hasan MM: Exploring globally used antiurolithiatic plants of A to L families: Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae revisited. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2017; 6(5): 1780-1787.
33. Dhande RS: Folk medicinal therapy used in the treatment of renal calculi (kidney stone) in Maharashtra: A review. International Journal of Researches in Biosciences, Agriculture and Technology 2016; 4(3): 24-30. http://www.vmsindia.org.
34. Ahmed S, Hasan MM and Mahmood ZA: In-vitro urolithiasis models: An evaluation of prophylactic management against kidney stones. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2016; 5(3): 28-35. www.florajournal.com.
35. Zaki S, Jahan N, Kalim M and Islam G: In-vitro antilithiatic activity of the hydro-alcoholic extract of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume bark on calcium oxalate crystallization. Journal of Integrative Medicine 2019; 17(4): 273-281. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joim.2019.04.001
36. Hewagama SP and Hewawasam RP: Antiurolithiatic potential of three Sri Lankan medicinal plants by the inhibition of nucleation, growth, and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals in-vitro. The Scientific World Journal 2022; 2022. doi: https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8657249.
37. Thakur S and Chaudhary G: Review based upon ayurvedic and traditional uses of Cinnamomum tamala (Tejpatta). Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res 2021; 68(2): 71-78. doi: 10.47583/ijpsrr.2021.v68i02.011.
38. Shah M and Panchal M: Ethnopharmacological properties of Cinnamomum tamala-a review. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research 2010; 5(3): 141-144.
39. Gogoi B, Bordoloi M and Sharma HK: Ethnomedicinal, phytochemistry, pharmacological, and clinical uses, of Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch.-Ham.) Sweet. Journal of Herbal Medicine 2023; 41: 100721. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2023.100721.
40. Gogoi B, Kakoti BB, Bora NS and Yadav P: In-vitro antihelmintic activity of bark extract of Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch.-Ham.) in Indian adult earthworm (Pheretima posthuma). Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease 2014; 4: S924-S927. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(14)60759-3.
41. Wannissorn B, Jarikasem S, Siriwangchai T and Thubthimthed S: Antibacterial properties of essential oils from Thai medicinal plants. Fitoterapia 2005; 76(2): 233-236. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2004.12.009.
42. Majumdar K and Datta BK: A study on ethnomedicinal usage of plants among the folklore herbalists and Tripuri medical practitioners: Part-II. Natural Product Radiance. 2007; 6(1): 66-73.
43. Doley BH, Gajurel PR, Rethy P and Saikia BIA: Check list of commonly used Species by the Nyshi tribes of Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh. J Bio Sci Res 2010; 1(1): 9-12.
44. Ghorbani A, Langenberger G, Feng L and Sauerborn J: Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants utilised by Hani ethnicity in Naban river watershed national nature reserve, Yunnan, China. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2011; 134(3): 651-667. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.011.
45. Uddin MN, Alam T, Islam MA, Khan TA, Zaman RU, Azam S, Kamal AM and Jakaria M: Evaluation of carbon tetrachloride fraction of Actinodaphne angustifolia Nees (Lauraceae) leaf extract for antioxidant, cytotoxic, thrombolytic and antidiarrheal properties. Bioscience Reports 2020; 40(6): BSR20201110. doi. https://doi.org/10.1042/BSR20201110.
46. Kwon KB, Kim EK, Jeong ES, Lee YH, Lee, YR, Park, JW, Ryu DG and Park BH: Cortex cinnamomi extract prevents streptozotocin- and cytokine-induced β-cell damage by inhibiting NF-κB. World J. Gastroenterol. 2006; 12(27): 4331–4337. doi: https://doi.org/10.3748%2Fwjg.v12.i27.4331.
47. Hong JW, Yang GE, Kim YB, Eom SH, Lew JH and Kang H: Anti-inflammatory activity of cinnamon water extract in-vivo and in-vitro LPS-induced models. BMC Complementary Medicines and Therapies 2012; 12: 237.
48. Ji HY, Zeng FX, Zhu RX and Zheng ZH: Exploration about the Clinical Application and Dosage of Cinnamon. Jilin J. Tradit Chin Med 2019; 39: 317–320.
49. Lin HQ, Zhou BS, Tan J, Wang H, Wu FL, Liu JP and Li PY: Research progress on chemical constituents, pharmacological activity and clinical application of Cinnamomi cortex. Spec. Wild Econ. Anim Plant Res 2018; 40: 65–69.
50. Zhang C, Fan L, Fan S, Wang J, Luo T, Tang Y, Chen Z and Yu L: Cinnamomum cassia Presl: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. Molecules 2019; 24(19): 3473. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24193473.
51. Zaki S, Jahan N, Kalim M and Islam G: In-vitro antilithiatic activity of the hydro-alcoholic extract of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume bark on calcium oxalate crystallization. Journal of Integrative Medicine 2019; 17(4): 273-81. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joim.2019.04.001.
52. Singh N, Rao AS, Nandal A, Kumar S, Yadav SS, Ganaie SA and Narasimhan B: Phytochemical and pharmacological review of Cinnamomum verum Presl-a versatile spice used in food and nutrition. Food Chemistry. 2021; 338: 127773. doi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127773.
53. Polat S: Effect of Avocado (Persea gratissima) Leaf Extract on Calcium Oxalate Crystallization. ACTA Pharmaceutica sciencia 2020; 58(1). Doi: 10.23893/1307-2080.APS.05803.
54. Wientarsih I, Madyastuti R, Prasetyo BF and Aldobrata A: Anti lithiasis activity of Avocado (Persea americana Mill) leaves extract in white male rats. Hayati journal of Biosciences 2012; 19(1): 49-52. doi: https://doi.org/10.4308/hjb.19.1.49.
55. Ni MD, Rika SD and Alya F: The effectiveness of avocado (Persea americana) leaves infusion as urinary stones dissolving in rats. Pharmaciana: Jurnal Kefarmasian 2022; 12(2): 164-72. doi: 10.12928/pharmaciana.v12i2.21833.
56. Madyastuti R, Wientarsih I, Widodo S, Purwaningsih EH and Harlina E: In-vitro study of the effect avocado leaf and cats whiskers extractcombination as inhibitor of urine crystallization. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy 2019; 9(10): 26-31.
57. Sırıken B, Yavuz C and Guler A: Antibacterial activity of Laurus nobilis: A review of literature. Medical Science and Discovery 2018; 5(11): 374–379. doi: https://doi.org/10.17546/msd.482929.
58. Ozcan M and Chalchat JC: Effect of different locations on the chemical composition of essential oils of laurel (Laurus nobilis) leaves growing wild in Turkey. Journal of Medicinal Food 2005; 8: 408–411. doi: https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2005.8.408.
59. Yadav R. D, Jain SK, Alok S, Mahor A, Bharti JP and Jaiswal M: Herbal plants used in the treatment of urolithiasis: a review. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research 2011; 2(6): 1412-1420.
60. Badwaik H, Singh MK, Thakur D, Giri TK and Tripathi DK: The botany, chemistry, pharmacological and therapeutic application of Oxalis corniculata Linn-a review. International Journal of Phytomedicine 2011; 3(1): 1-8.
61. Pawar AT: Vyawahare NS: Protective effect of standardized extract of Biophytum sensitivum against calcium oxalate urolithiasis in rats. Bulletin of Faculty of Pharmacy Cairo University 2015; 53(2): 161-72. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bfopcu.2015.10.002.
62. Pawar AT and Vyawahare NS: Protective effect of ethyl acetate fraction of Biophytum sensitivum extract against sodium oxalate-induced urolithiasis in rats. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine 2017; 7(4): 476-86. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.12.012.
63. Lin YL and Wang WY: Chemical constituents of Biophytum sensitivum. The Chinese Pharmaceutical Journal 2003; 55(1): 71-75. doi: https://www.airitilibrary.com/Common/Click_DOI?DOI=10.7019/CPJ.200302.0071.
    

    ---

    How to cite this article:

    Ghosh P, Ghosh M and Roy D: Beyond conventional treatments: exploring phytochemical remedies from lauraceae and oxalidaceae in urolithiasis. Int J Pharmacognosy 2024; 11(3): 90-99. doi link: http://dx.doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.IJP.11(3). 90-99.

    ---

    This Journal licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License.